The release of “翦商：殷周之变与华夏新生” (literally, “Overthrowing the Shang: The Yin-Zhou Transformation and the Rebirth of the Chinese Civilization“) by Li Shuo has taken the Chinese internet by storm, sparking heated debate about a chapter of ancient history most Americans know little about: the brutal reality of human sacrifice in the Shang Dynasty, its abrupt disappearance, and the true story behind the Zhou Dynasty’s rise to power. While these topics might seem arcane, Li Shuo, a scholar known for his engaging and accessible writing style, has managed to make them feel as thrilling as any modern-day thriller. Weaving together archaeological evidence, insights gleaned from oracle bone inscriptions, and re-interpretations of classic texts like the “I Ching,” Li paints a vivid picture of a civilization grappling with power, belief, and the very nature of humanity.
For those unfamiliar with Chinese history, the Shang Dynasty, existing roughly from 1600 to 1046 BCE, is considered one of the foundational eras of Chinese civilization. Known for its sophisticated bronzework, elaborate rituals, and yes, widespread practice of human sacrifice, the Shang Dynasty was eventually overthrown by the Zhou, ushering in a new era of Chinese history. But the story, as Li Shuo argues, is far more nuanced than a simple transfer of power. He suggests that the Zhou Dynasty’s triumph wasn’t just a military victory but also a cultural revolution, leading to the suppression of the Shang’s brutal religious practices and paving the way for a more peaceful and humane society.
Published in October 2022 by Guangxi Normal University Press, “Overthrowing the Shang” quickly climbed the ranks of China’s most popular books, capturing the attention of academics and casual readers alike. On Douban, China’s equivalent of Goodreads, the book currently sits comfortably at 174th on the Top 250 list, boasting a stellar 9.0 rating from over 29,000 readers. With praise like “神作!” (roughly, “a masterpiece!”) flooding comment sections, it’s clear that Li Shuo has tapped into a vein of Chinese history that resonates deeply, even today.
The Forgotten History of Human Sacrifice
For many Americans, the concept of human sacrifice evokes images of ancient Aztec temples or perhaps biblical stories of Abraham and Isaac. But for much of China’s history, human sacrifice was a disturbingly common practice, deeply intertwined with the rise of civilization itself. Li Shuo, in “Overthrowing the Shang,” argues that the practice reached its zenith during the Shang Dynasty, becoming a central pillar of the state religion and a defining feature of the era’s cultural landscape. Using meticulous archaeological research, Li guides readers through this dark chapter of Chinese history, uncovering a past that has been largely forgotten, intentionally erased from official records to paint a more palatable picture of China’s origins.
1. A Brutal Scene: The Last Human Sacrifice of the Shang
Li Shuo’s account begins with a chillingly detailed reconstruction of what he believes to be one of the last human sacrifices performed during the final days of the Shang Dynasty. Drawing on excavation records from the H10 sacrificial pit, located in the Hougang area of the Shang capital, Li recreates the methodical process of this ritual killing. The pit, unlike most others found at the site, was not a simple single-layer grave but a multi-tiered structure, revealing a carefully orchestrated process of human sacrifice.
Li walks us through each layer of the pit, describing the position of the bodies, the types of wounds inflicted, and the accompanying artifacts. The victims, likely members of a noble family named “Shu Sizi,” were sacrificed in three distinct phases. The first layer contained the remains of 19 individuals, many dismembered or decapitated, their bodies intermingled with broken pottery and seashells, currency in the Shang Dynasty. The second layer held the remains of at least 29 individuals, many bearing signs of bound limbs and forced postures, suggesting they were buried alive. The final layer contained 24 individuals, many showing signs of torture and mutilation, alongside valuable bronze vessels and weapons.
What makes the H10 pit so unusual is not just the sheer scale of the sacrifice but also the inclusion of valuable goods alongside the victims. Li Shuo suggests that this points to a possible act of punishment or execution sanctioned by the Shang king himself, perhaps for some perceived betrayal or offense. The inclusion of the bronze vessels, inscribed with the family’s name and details of a royal audience, adds another layer of complexity to this macabre scene. The family, seemingly honored by the king at one point, met a gruesome end, their possessions buried with them as they were offered as sacrifices to appease the ancestors and perhaps serve as a grim warning to others who might challenge the king’s authority.
2. The Truth of “Great Yu Taming the Flood”: Rice and Dragons
Li Shuo’s book doesn’t just focus on the gruesome details of human sacrifice. He also explores how this practice was interwoven with other aspects of Shang society, including the development of agriculture and the rise of a powerful ruling class.
In a chapter that challenges traditional interpretations of Chinese mythology, Li Shuo delves into the legendary tale of “Great Yu Taming the Flood,” a story familiar to most Chinese schoolchildren. The story tells of a hero named Yu who successfully diverted floodwaters and created a network of canals and waterways that laid the foundation for Chinese civilization. However, Li Shuo, using archaeological evidence and reinterpretations of ancient texts, offers a different perspective.
He argues that the story of “Great Yu Taming the Flood” might not be about a literal flood but rather about the process of wetland reclamation and the spread of rice cultivation from the Yangtze River region to the more arid north. He points to archaeological discoveries at the Erlitou site, believed to be the capital of the Xia Dynasty, the predecessor to the Shang. The Erlitou people, according to Li, relied heavily on rice agriculture, a stark contrast to the traditional millet-based farming of the north. This suggests that the Xia, and later the Shang, played a significant role in the northward expansion of rice farming, transforming the landscape and laying the foundation for a more centralized and powerful state.
Li also draws attention to the prevalence of dragon imagery at the Erlitou site, a motif often associated with water and fertility in Chinese mythology. He argues that the dragon, a creature associated with both the watery south and the emerging power of the northern state, might be a symbol of this cultural and agricultural transformation.
3. The Rise of Human Sacrifice as a State Religion
As the Shang Dynasty consolidated its power and expanded its territory, human sacrifice became increasingly institutionalized, evolving from a sporadic ritual into a central feature of the state religion. Li Shuo, using archaeological evidence from the Shang capitals at Zhengzhou and Yanshi, demonstrates how the scale and frequency of human sacrifice grew dramatically during the early Shang period.
He points to the discovery of large sacrificial pits containing the remains of hundreds, and in some cases, thousands of individuals, often intermingled with animal bones, pottery, and other offerings. Li argues that these sacrifices were not just about appeasing the ancestors but also about reinforcing the power of the Shang king and demonstrating his ability to control life and death.
The practice, according to Li, was closely linked to warfare and the capture of prisoners from neighboring tribes. The Shang, a militaristic society, engaged in frequent campaigns to expand their territory and secure resources. Captured prisoners, often from groups referred to as “Qiang” in oracle bone inscriptions, became a readily available source of sacrificial victims, offered to the ancestors to ensure continued victory and prosperity for the Shang Dynasty.
Li Shuo’s meticulous research paints a chilling picture of a society where human life held little value, particularly for those outside the ruling class or those considered enemies of the Shang state. The practice of human sacrifice, deeply intertwined with the Shang’s beliefs about the afterlife and the power of the ancestors, became a defining feature of the era, casting a long shadow over Chinese history.
The Clash of Cultures
1. A Trading Post on the Yangtze: Panlongcheng
The Shang Dynasty’s ambition, fueled by their mastery of bronze technology, knew no bounds. This is best exemplified by the establishment of Panlongcheng, a remote outpost located on the Yangtze River, near modern-day Wuhan. The site’s significance, however, goes far beyond its geographical reach. Panlongcheng embodies the complex interplay of conquest, cultural exchange, and adaptation that characterized the Shang Dynasty’s interactions with the diverse populations under its rule.
Before the arrival of the Shang, Panlongcheng was a thriving center of pottery production, boasting advanced kilns capable of firing large quantities of ceramics. The locals also possessed a unique skill: the production of hard pottery and proto-porcelain, wares prized for their durability and lustrous finish. These goods were likely traded along the Yangtze River network, connecting Panlongcheng to a larger regional economy.
Around 3500 BCE, a Shang expeditionary force, armed with bronze weapons, arrived at Panlongcheng, marking the beginning of the Shang’s presence in the region. The Shang, ever on the lookout for sources of copper, tin, and lead, the essential ingredients for bronze production, recognized the strategic importance of Panlongcheng’s location at the confluence of the Yangtze and Han rivers.
The Shang transformed Panlongcheng into a bustling bronze production center, exploiting the local population’s expertise in pottery making and their access to crucial trade routes. However, unlike the Shang’s interactions with other conquered groups, their presence at Panlongcheng reveals a surprising level of cultural adaptation and integration.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the Shang at Panlongcheng did not engage in the widespread human sacrifice that characterized their culture in the north. Instead, they seem to have adopted the local practice of burying objects as offerings, a custom documented in earlier Neolithic cultures in the region.
The absence of large-scale sacrificial pits and the presence of burial rituals that blended Shang and local traditions suggest a deliberate attempt by the Shang at Panlongcheng to accommodate the local population’s beliefs and avoid antagonizing them. The Shang, outnumbered and far from their power base in the north, likely recognized the need for cooperation and peaceful coexistence.
2. Becoming the Claws and Teeth of the Shang Dynasty: Moving to Zhouyuan
While the Shang at Panlongcheng sought to integrate with the local population, their presence in other areas of their expanding empire was marked by a more assertive and at times brutal approach. The site of Laoniupo, located in the Guanzhong Basin near modern-day Xi’an, illustrates the Shang’s role as enforcers of the dynasty’s will and their increasingly aggressive use of human sacrifice to consolidate their power.
Laoniupo, before the arrival of the Shang, was a relatively peaceful agricultural community, its inhabitants living in simple pit dwellings, using stone tools, and practicing a form of ancestor worship that did not involve human sacrifice. However, the discovery of turquoise in nearby mountains attracted the attention of the Shang, who, in their relentless pursuit of bronze, recognized the value of this region as a potential source of copper ore.
The Shang’s presence at Laoniupo is marked by a distinct shift in the archaeological record. The appearance of Shang-style pottery, bronze weapons, and sacrificial pits containing human remains coincides with the arrival of Shang conquerors. These conquerors, likely a small group of warriors and their families, established themselves as the ruling class, exploiting the local population for labor and resources.
Unlike the Shang at Panlongcheng, the Shang at Laoniupo showed little interest in cultural integration. Their burials, marked by the distinctive “waist pit dog sacrifice” custom and the presence of elaborate bronze weapons and vessels, stand in stark contrast to the simpler graves of the local inhabitants.
The Shang’s use of human sacrifice at Laoniupo also intensified, perhaps reflecting their need to assert dominance over a potentially hostile population. Sacrificial pits containing the dismembered remains of multiple individuals, often young men and children, suggest a deliberate use of violence and terror to maintain control.
Laoniupo exemplifies the Shang’s role as the “claws and teeth” of the Shang Dynasty. These conquerors, tasked with securing new territories and resources, brought with them the full force of Shang military and religious practices, transforming a once peaceful community into a stronghold of Shang power.
3. King Zhou’s Southeastern Wars
As the Shang Dynasty entered its later phase, under the reign of the infamous King Zhou, known for his cruelty and excesses, the focus of Shang expansion shifted towards the southeast, a region inhabited by diverse groups known as the “Yi.” This region, encompassing parts of modern-day Shandong, Jiangsu, Henan, and Anhui provinces, was already home to scattered Shang settlements, but King Zhou’s campaigns aimed to assert greater control and perhaps secure new sources of manpower and resources.
Oracle bone inscriptions from the late Shang period document multiple expeditions against the “Yi,” often led by King Zhou himself or by trusted generals. These campaigns, characterized by large-scale mobilization of troops and brutal reprisals against those who resisted, aimed to crush any potential threats to Shang authority and ensure the continued flow of tribute to the Shang capital.
One particularly well-documented expedition, taking place in the tenth year of King Zhou’s reign, targeted a powerful Yi leader named “Wu Di,” whose territory likely lay in the Huai River region. The inscriptions describe a massive military campaign involving troops from multiple Shang vassal states, culminating in the capture of Wu Di, who, according to later accounts, was chopped into meat paste, a gruesome form of ritual execution.
This campaign, and others like it, resulted in the capture of numerous prisoners who were brought back to the Shang capital to serve as sacrificial victims. The tomb of a high-ranking Shang official at the Liujiazhuang North site, dating to the late Shang period, provides a chilling example of this practice. A young woman, identified through isotopic analysis as originating from the Huai River region, was found buried alongside the tomb’s owner, her skull placed inside a bronze steamer vessel, suggesting she was cooked and consumed as part of the funerary rituals.
King Zhou’s southeastern wars represent the final phase of Shang expansionism. Driven by a combination of ambition, resource acquisition, and perhaps a desire to relocate the dynasty’s center of power to a more climatically favorable region, these campaigns further solidified the Shang’s reputation for brutality and military might.
The Rise of Zhou and the End of Sacrifice
1. King Wen’s Secret: The Truth Behind the “I Ching”
King Wen, born Ji Chang, is a pivotal figure in Chinese history, revered as the father of the Zhou Dynasty and a sage of profound wisdom. While imprisoned by the Shang king, he is said to have expanded the eight trigrams of the “I Ching” into the sixty-four hexagrams we know today, a feat of philosophical and mathematical brilliance. But Li Shuo, in “Overthrowing the Shang,” suggests that the “I Ching” might hold a deeper, more subversive secret: a coded record of King Wen’s plan to overthrow the Shang Dynasty and dismantle its brutal religious practices.
To understand this theory, one must first understand the context of King Wen’s life. He inherited leadership of the Zhou tribe at a young age, a group that had recently been relocated to Zhouyuan, a region in the Guanzhong Basin, under the watchful eye of the Shang. As a vassal of the Shang, King Wen was obligated to provide tribute and manpower, including the capture and delivery of sacrificial victims from neighboring Qiang tribes. This task, Li Shuo argues, weighed heavily on King Wen’s conscience, fueling his resentment towards the Shang and his desire for a more humane society.
While imprisoned by the Shang king, King Wen delved into the world of divination and fortune-telling, seeking ways to understand and perhaps manipulate the forces of fate. He became particularly interested in the “I Ching,” a system of divination that involved manipulating yarrow stalks or coins to generate a series of six lines, representing yin and yang, which could then be interpreted to reveal insights into the past, present, and future.
Li Shuo argues that King Wen, while mastering the “I Ching,” began to see its potential as more than just a divination tool. He suggests that King Wen, through the creation of the hexagram names and the writing of the cryptic line statements known as “yao ci,” encoded his own experiences and observations, including his plans for overthrowing the Shang.
For example, the hexagram “Pi,” meaning “stripping away” or “skinning,” is interpreted by Li as a veiled reference to the process of human sacrifice, its line statements describing the methodical dismemberment of a victim. The hexagram “Gen,” often associated with stillness or stopping, is interpreted by Li as representing the suffering and anger of those sacrificed, its line statements detailing the various stages of ritual execution.
Li Shuo’s interpretation of the “I Ching” might seem like a stretch to some, but it offers a compelling new perspective on a text that has fascinated scholars for centuries. He suggests that the “I Ching” is not just a mystical text about cosmic principles but also a historical document, a testament to King Wen’s political acumen and his desire for a more just and humane world.
2. Memories of the Youli Prison
King Wen’s imprisonment at Youli, a detention center likely located near the Shang capital, became a turning point in his life. It was here, amidst the horrors of human sacrifice and the constant threat of execution, that he honed his understanding of the “I Ching” and developed his plan for overthrowing the Shang.
While the exact reasons for King Wen’s imprisonment are unclear, Li Shuo suggests that it might have been a result of his growing influence among the Shang’s vassal states and perhaps his secret communications with dissatisfied members of the Shang elite. The Shang king, sensing a potential threat, might have sought to neutralize King Wen and his ambitions.
The “I Ching,” according to Li Shuo, provides glimpses into King Wen’s prison experiences. The hexagram “Kan,” associated with danger and imprisonment, describes the physical and psychological hardship of confinement, its line statements mentioning steep, inescapable pits, the sound of prisoners’ cries, and the anxiety of awaiting judgment.
Other hexagrams, such as “Shi He,” meaning “biting through,” paint an even more disturbing picture of prison life. Li Shuo interprets its line statements as references to the practice of feeding prisoners the scraps of meat from sacrificial victims, noting the mention of gnawing on bones, finding bronze arrowheads in the food, and the despair of being treated as less than human.
King Wen’s time at Youli solidified his determination to dismantle the Shang’s brutal regime. It was here, witnessing the depths of human cruelty, that he developed a vision for a new kind of society, one based on justice, compassion, and a respect for human dignity.
3. A New Era: Duke of Zhou’s Moral Revolution
The Zhou Dynasty’s triumph over the Shang wasn’t just a military victory but also a cultural revolution. Li Shuo, in “Overthrowing the Shang,” argues that the Duke of Zhou, brother of King Wu, the first Zhou king, played a pivotal role in dismantling the Shang’s religious practices and establishing a new, more humane moral order that would shape Chinese civilization for millennia to come.
Following the Zhou conquest of the Shang, the Duke of Zhou faced the daunting task of integrating the vast and diverse populations of the former Shang Dynasty into the Zhou realm. He recognized that the Shang’s culture, deeply rooted in human sacrifice and ancestor worship, posed a serious threat to the stability of the new dynasty.
To address this challenge, the Duke of Zhou implemented a two-pronged strategy. First, he sought to break up the power of the Shang elite by relocating them to various parts of the Zhou territory, disrupting their networks and limiting their ability to mobilize resistance. He also oversaw the destruction of the Shang capital at Anyang, erasing its symbolic power and severing the Shang’s connection to their ancestral past.
Second, the Duke of Zhou promoted a new moral code based on the concept of “de,” often translated as “virtue” or “moral power.” This new code emphasized benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom, values that stood in stark contrast to the Shang’s emphasis on military might and ritual sacrifice.
The Duke of Zhou’s vision for a new society is reflected in the series of pronouncements and speeches attributed to him in the “Book of Documents,” a collection of ancient Chinese texts. In these pronouncements, the Duke of Zhou stressed the importance of righteous governance, respect for the common people, and the pursuit of harmony and order. He also advocated for a more humane approach to punishment, shifting away from the Shang’s reliance on corporal and capital punishment.
To further solidify this new moral order, the Duke of Zhou oversaw the creation of a new system of rituals and ceremonies that emphasized the importance of ancestor veneration, but without the brutal practices of human sacrifice. These rituals, centered around the Zhou royal court and the newly established system of vassal states, aimed to cultivate a sense of shared identity and loyalty to the Zhou Dynasty.
The Duke of Zhou’s moral revolution was not just a theoretical exercise. He recognized that to truly transform society, these new values needed to be embedded in every aspect of life, from governance and law to family and social relations.
While the Duke of Zhou’s reforms did not completely eliminate all traces of human sacrifice in ancient China, they marked a significant shift in the cultural landscape. The Shang’s brutal religious practices were suppressed, and a new emphasis on moral virtue and humane governance took root, laying the foundation for the Confucian tradition that would later emerge as a dominant force in Chinese thought.
Li Shuo’s “Overthrowing the Shang” is more than just an academic deep dive into a brutal period of ancient history. It’s a thrilling exploration of the clash between two starkly different worldviews and a powerful meditation on the nature of civilization itself. While the book focuses on the specific context of ancient China, its themes resonate with a global audience. After all, who among us hasn’t grappled with questions of power, belief, and the dark side of human nature?
Li Shuo’s meticulous research and gripping storytelling make “Overthrowing the Shang” a compelling read for both academics and casual readers. He masterfully combines archaeological discoveries, oracle bone inscriptions, and interpretations of ancient texts to paint a vivid and thought-provoking picture of the Shang Dynasty, its religious practices, and the cultural forces that led to its demise. By unraveling the hidden history of human sacrifice and its abrupt end under the Zhou Dynasty, Li Shuo sheds new light on the origins of Chinese civilization and the values that continue to shape Chinese society today. For any American seeking a deeper understanding of China’s complex past and a fresh perspective on the very essence of what it means to be human, “Overthrowing the Shang” is an essential read. Go ahead, dive into the ancient world, and don’t be surprised if what you find lurking in those ancient ruins feels strikingly familiar.
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